Imagine living in the 21st century but still deprived of fundamental human rights, counted as a stateless, exposed to the vulnerabilities of ethnic cleansing, and on the brink of forced migration. These are the atrocities the Rohingya, a Muslim ethnic minority in Myanmar, formerly known as Burma, are still facing at the hands of Myanmar’s state authorities.
To start with, in 1982, a law was passed by the Burmese government, in which citizenship was subjected to ethnicity and the Rohingya and other minority communities were excluded from this criteria. The law stripped them of their citizenship and left them stateless. Following the year 1989, Burma was renamed as Myanmar, which required everyone to renew their identities. Still, the Rohingya never received that. Resultantly, a wave of migration toward Bangladesh was seen due to the discrimination, forced labor and torture.
The following years also witnessed large-scale violence, especially in 2012 when clashes erupted between the Rohingya and the ethnic Rakhine in Rakhine state. This led to the enforced segregation of 130,000 people in barricaded camps, mostly Rohingya. Moving forward, the 2014 census added more suffering when the Rohingya were excluded from ethnicities and were compelled to register themselves as Bengali.
But the brutality reached its peak when on Aug. 25, 2017, the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA) attacked several police posts in the northern Rakhine. In response to this assault, the military, backed by Buddhist militia, launched a “clearance operation.”
Refugee crisis
According to the United Nations human rights reports, in the first eight months of 2017, more than 70,000 Rohingya migrated toward Bangladesh. The number spiked manifold after Aug. 25. Doctors Without Borders reports that about 6,700 people were killed, including children, and more than 600,000 Rohingya were forced to flee to Bangladesh after Aug. 25, 2017.
In 2023, this number crossed 1 million. Among them, 70% are women and children, and more than half are below the age of 15. According to estimates, 33 refugee camps were constructed in Cox’s Bazar, making it one of the densely populated refugee camps.
These refugees are living a miserable life in the refugee camps due to an unhygienic environment, inadequate medical care, malnutrition and an impending natural disaster. As of May 2025, 1.2 million Rohingya refugees are in Bangladesh. The most concerning issue that the Rohingya face in contemporary times is their stateless status. Due to this, they are facing the dilemma of access to fundamental human rights, including education, medical care and livelihood. Such communities are the most vulnerable to marginalization and exploitation.
On the same line, Bangladesh also faces devastating natural calamities, including floods and monsoon seasons. In June 2024, due to excessive rains, seven Rohingya refugees died, and more than 8000 were affected in Cox’s Bazar. Amid all these, refugees rely on humanitarian assistance and in that case, more than 90 % Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh are dependent on the aid for their basic needs. The number of organizations assisting is still limited, but there are gaps in financing.
Crimes against humanity
In June 2025, the U.N. appealed for the $84 million as there was an influx of more than 150,000 Rohingya in Bangladesh due to the violence in Rakhine State.
The Myanmar government’s statistics contradict those of the independent organization, as the authorities have confined the number to 400 and operations were halted in September. However, the BBC reports that the operation continued after that. Moreover, the fact-finding mission that was assigned to probe into the crackdown concludes that the military was deployed in the northern Rakhine weeks earlier than Aug. 25. Hundreds of refugees fled to Bangladesh after the crackdown and joined those who had fled in previous years. According to Human Rights Watch, a satellite image released on Sept. 16, 2017, 214 villages were burned entirely to ashes since Aug. 25.
In 2019, the International Criminal Court initiated investigations into crimes against the Rohingya. In addition, the International Court of Justice in The Hague opened a case against the alleged genocide. Many Western nations imposed sanctions against the military leadership. The crisis has tarnished the global image of Myanmar, which has been marked by poor governance that has plunged the country into an economic crisis. The mass migration of Rohingya reduced their population in Myanmar by 50% thus making it the largest migration after the Vietnam War.
The situation of Myanmar took a new turn when, in February 2021 military coup was staged. A nationwide crackdown was carried out against those opposing the rule. According to reports till 2022, the junta military had arrested more than 16,000 pro-democratic activists. The detainees faced torture, sexual abuse and ill treatment in their detention. According to the U.N. Acting High Commissioner for Human Rights, 273 persons have died in formal detention such as prisons, detention and interrogation centers and police stations. Moreover, 266 deaths were reported following raids and arrests in villages, of which 40 were reportedly killed with headshots.
Growing regional impact
The crisis has not only impacted Myanmar itself but also profoundly affected and spread into the region as well. On the brink of crisis, Bangladesh faces the heaviest burden in many forms. The influx has resulted in economic imbalance, climate degradation, market competition and price spikes. A study finds that in 2022, an 8% to 13% increase in prices was observed in Ukhia, an upazila of Cox’s Bazar district. Additionally, Bangladeshi official have also recognized an additional economic pressure on their localities.
On the same line, Malaysia is also home to a significant number of Rohingya. As per the U.N. Refugee Agency (UNHCR) July 2025 data, it accommodates 1,83,200 Rohingya and has no legal status, which often leads to arrest or exploitation.
India, too, hosts 83,900 migrants. But recently, they have stated that they will deport them. So in this way, this crisis has led to strained relations, human rights challenges and created social tensions in host countries.
Nevertheless, there are always pockets of hope and solutions. Many international organizations, such as UNHCR and Doctors Without Borders, are already engaged in addressing the needs of refugees. But there is a need for pragmatic and enduring solutions. This requires a three-tier process. First, the international community needs to pressure Myanmar to end the persecution and restore the citizenship status to the Rohingya and ensure the safe return of the Rohingya. At the state level, a strong and durable social contract between the state and the ethnic minorities needs to be formulated to curb future potential ethnic fault lines. At the refugee level, the refugees need to be equipped with education and technical or vocational skills to make them capable of earning their livelihood and contributing to financial independence.
